1980s
Summary
The government establishes separate parliaments for Whites, Indians, and “Coloreds.” Black organizers create the United Democratic Front (UDF), which engages in a resistance policy to make South Africa ungovernable by boycotting payments for rent, utilities, and other services. Nominally independent local governments established in black areas, are largely rejected by residents, and local government collaborators are victimized.
Meanwhile, economic growth slows dramatically, leading to the establishment of arms-length development institutions, e.g., Development Bank of Southern Africa, South African Housing Trust, and Independent Development Trust, that strive to depoliticize development. A white paper that recognizes the inevitability of urbanization and establishes a spatial framework is published.
Influences
- Protests regarding the rights of blacks in urban areas continue; urban policy and development becomes highly political.
- Professional institutes start to become more vocal critics of government.
- Frederik Willem De Klerk is elected.
- Petty apartheid ended.
- United Democratic Front established; vows to make South Africa ungovernable.
- NGOs play an increasing role, with foreign donor support.
- ANC underground movement and armed struggle intensifies.
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Policies and Programs
- Black homeownership and tenure introduced as a result of pressure to give blacks increased rights.
- White Paper on orderly urbanization (1986) reverses years of anti-urban policy.
- Influx control repealed.
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Institutional Roles
- Black local authorities have local governance rights but are not accepted as legitimate by black activists.
- Townships strictly managed by police and military.
- Investment in urban development declines dramatically.
- Multi-party negotiations on electricity, water, and other services.
- National Security Management System.
- State Security Council (SSC).
- Development Bank of Southern Africa (created 1980) as "arms length" method of funding homelands development.
- South African National Civics Organizations form as vehicle for activists to oppose the state.
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Methods, Tools, and Practices
- Regional Services Councils established to fund infrastructure in black areas.
- Private housing finance for new housing and housing improvements.
- Black townships administered as military zones under National Security Management System.
- No widespread urban investment, but select high-profile, ad hoc urban development to mitigate public unrest under the broader context of segregation.
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Lessons and Outcomes
- Apartheid begins to fall apart.
- Planning focuses more on economic development than on Grand Apartheid; economic regions demonstrate integrated development.
- Private sector efforts to lend for middle-class black housing suffer badly from poor risk management and volatile bond (mortgage) interest rates (12%-26%).
- Boycotts over rates, services, rental, and bonds (mortgages).
- Homeless occupied land, creating informal settlement in government or trust land, townships, homelands, and farmlands (shack farming).
- Blacks start to (illegally) live in inner-city apartments.
- Reforms create legal opportunities for new political activism; reforms escalate resistance, especially in homelands.
- Economy in decline, unemployment up, crime up.
- Informal settlements become a major issue highlighted by anti-apartheid activists in Europe and the U.S.
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